Cebuano grammar

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Cebuano grammar encompasses the rules that defines the Cebuano language, a Visayan language
spoken in Cebu, Bohol, part of Leyte island, and the majority of Mindanao.

Cebuano has eight basic parts of speech: nouns,
pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, particles, prepositions
and conjunctions. Cebuano is
partially inflected:
pronouns are inflected by number, and verbs are inflected for aspect, focus, and mood.

Contents

1 Morphosyntactic
alignment

1.1 Austronesian
Alignment

2 Pronouns

2.1 Personal
pronouns

2.1.1 Usage of full and
short forms

2.1.2 First person plural:
clusivity

3 Demonstratives

4 Adverbs

4.1 Deictics

5 Nouns

5.1 Case

5.2 Number

5.3 Gender

6 Adjectives

6.1 Plural
forms

6.2 Comparative

6.3 Comparative
superlative

6.4 Absolute
superlative

6.5 Intensive

7 Linkers

7.1 Nga

7.2 Ka

8 Enclitic
particles

9 Interrogatives

10 Verbs

10.1 Verb Roots vs. Verb
Stems

10.2 Aspect, Form, Mood, and
Tense

10.2.1 Mood

10.2.1.1 The Indicative
Mood

10.2.1.2 The Mirative
Mood

10.2.1.3 The Potential
Mood

10.2.2 Form

10.2.2.1 The Transitory
Form

10.2.2.2 The Durative
Form

10.2.2.3 The Stative
Form

10.2.2.4 The Reciprocal
Form

10.2.3 Tense vs.
Aspect

10.3 Verb Affixes for Voice,
Mood, Form, and Aspect

10.3.1 Active Voice
Affixes

10.3.2 Passive Voice for
Direct Objects Affixes

10.3.3 Passive Voice for
Indirect Objects Affixes

10.3.4 Passive Voice for
Instruments Affixes

11 Syntax

11.1 Sentences

12 Footnotes

13 External
links

Morphosyntactic
alignment[edit]

Cebuano, along with many other Philippine languages, are sometimes considered
ergative or nominative in alignment, both being incorrect and correct as it has
features of both systems. See Austronesian
alignment.

Austronesian
Alignment[edit]

Cebuano verbs are morphologically complex and take on a variety of affixes
reflecting Voice, Quality, Aspect, Mood, and others.
Cebuano arguably follows Austronesian
alignment. Basically, verbs conjugate by using these affixes according to
which argumentative
role the noun in the direct case has. This noun in the direct case can be
the doer of the action, the recipient of the action, the purpose for the action,
or the means by which the action was made possible; which are all argumentative
roles. The direct case hides the noun's otherwise-evident argumentative role,
which the verb then makes up for by conjugating with specific affixes that
indicate which argumentative role the noun in the direct case has. Some Cebuano
grammar teachers call the noun in the direct case the Topic of the
sentence, but some others call it the Focus, Voice, or Trigger; as
the verb and the other nouns in the sentence have all their noun markers and
affixes change accordingly.

Cebuano has four voices: the Active Voice a.k.a. the Agent
Trigger, the Passive Voice for Direct Objects a.k.a. the Patient
Trigger, the Passive Voice for Indirect Objects and/or Locations a.k.a.
the Circumstantial Trigger, and the Passive Voice for Instruments
a.k.a. the Instrument Trigger.

The Circumstantial Trigger Affixes select for location, benefactee and/or
goal topics.

The direct case morpheme, which marks the topic in Cebuano, is ang
or si.

(1)

Agent Trigger

Mo-luto’

si

Maria

og

kalamay

para

kang

Pedro.

AT-cook

DIR

Maria

ACC

type.of.dessert

for

OBL

Pedro

"Maria will cook kalamay for Pedro."

Here, the agent Maria is marked with si, the personal direct
noun marker. The prefix Mo- indicates that the noun in the direct case
(Maria) is also the agent, which would not have been known otherwise.

(2)

Patient Trigger

Luto’-on

sa

babaye

ang

bugas

sa

lata.

cook-PT

ERG

woman

DIR

rice

OBL

can

"The woman will cook the rice in the can."

(or "The rice will be cooked by the woman in the
can.")

Here, the patient Bugas is marked with ang, the general direct
noun marker. The suffix -on indicates that the noun in the direct case
(bugas) is also the patient, which would not have been known otherwise.
Babaye is marked with sa, the general ergative noun marker which
indicates that babaye is not in the direct case but is still the agent of
the sentence. Via context and common word order, it is evident that lata
is not the agent despite it being marked with sa as well (but as the
general oblique definite noun marker), because it is not the first noun in the
sentence (which the agent usually is) and nor can a can cook rice (context).

(3)

a.

Circumstantial Trigger (with location subject)

Luto’-an

sa

babaye

ang

lata

og

bugas.

cook-CT

ERG

woman

DIR

can

ACC

rice

"The woman will cook rice in the can."

(or "The can will be cooked rice in by the
woman.")

Here, the location lata is marked with ang, the general direct
noun marker. The suffix -an indicates that the noun in the direct case
(lata) is also the location of the action, which would not have been
known otherwise. Babaye is marked with sa, the general ergative
noun marker which indicates that babaye is not in the direct case but is
still the agent of the sentence. Bugas is marked with the general oblique
indefinite marker og, indicating that it is neither the noun in the
direct case nor the agent noun, but rather that it is the direct object of the
sentence.

(3)

b.

Circumstantial Trigger (with benefactee subject)

Luto’-an

ni

Maria

si

Pedro

og

kalamay.

cook-CT

ERG

Maria

DIR

Pedro

ACC

type.of.dessert

"Maria will cook Pedro kalamay."

(or "Pedro will be cooked kalamay for by
Maria.")

Here, the indirect object or benefactee Pedro is marked with
si, the personal direct noun marker. The suffix -an indicates that
the noun in the direct case (Pedro) is also the indirect object of the
action, which would not have been known otherwise. Maria is marked with
the personal ergative noun marker ni, which indicates that Maria
is not the noun in the direct case but is still the agent of the sentence.
Kalamay is marked with the general oblique indefinite marker og,
indicating that kalamay is neither the noun in the direct case nor the
agent noun, but rather that it is the direct object.

(3)

c.

Circumstantial Trigger (with goal subject)

Sulat-an

ni

Inday

si

Perla

og

sulat.

write-CT

ERG

Inday

DIR

Perla

ACC

letter

"Inday will write Perla a letter."

(or "Perla will be written a letter to by Inday.")

Here, it is similar to the Circumstantial Trigger (with benefactee
subject) in that the goal subject Perla is also the indirect object of
the sentence. It is also marked by si, the personal direct noun marker,
and it is known to be the indirect object of the sentence thanks to the verb
suffix -an indicating that the noun in the direct case would be the
indirect object of the sentence.

(4)

Instrument Trigger

I-sulat

ni

Linda

ang

lapis

og

sulat.

IT-write

ERG

Linda

DIR

pencil

ACC

letter

"Linda will write a letter with the pencil."

(or "The pencil will be written a letter with by
Linda.")

Here, the instrument lapis is marked with ang, the general
direct noun marker. The prefix I- indicates that the noun in the direct
case (lapis) is also the instrument used to complete the action, which
would not have been known otherwise. Linda is marked with the personal
ergative noun marker ni, which indicates that Linda is not the
noun in the direct case but is still the agent of the sentence. Sulat is
marked with the general oblique indefinite marker og, indicating that
sulat is neither the noun in the direct case nor the agent noun, but
rather that it is the direct object.

Pronouns[edit]

Personal
pronouns[edit]

Pronouns are inflected for person, number and case. No gender
distinctions are made for the third person singular: he and
she are both translated in Cebuano
as siya.

The three cases are direct,
ergative and oblique.

Direct

Ergative
(postposed)

Ergative
(preposed)

Oblique

Full

Short

Full

Short

Full

Full

Short

1st person singular

ako

ko*

nako

ko

ako, akoa

kanako

nako

2nd person singular

ikaw

ka

nimo

mo

imo, imoha

kanimo

nimo

3rd person singular

siya

niya

iya, iyaha

kaniya

niya

1st person plural inclusive

kita

ta

nato

to

ato, atoa

kanato

nato

1st person plural exclusive

kami

mi

namo

mo

amo, amoa

kanamo

namo

2nd person plural

kamo

mo

ninyo

inyo, inyoha

kaninyo

ninyo

3rd person plural

sila

nila

ila, ilaha

kanila

nila

* - Ta only when the object is the second person singular, i.e.,
ka, mo, etc. For example, Nakita ta ka, NOT *Nakita ko
ka.

Usage of full
and short forms[edit]

The short forms are used most often in conversation. However, the full forms
must be used when they occur on their own as a predicate.

Examples (Those marked with an asterisk, "*", are ungrammatical):

Ako si Juan. I am John.
*Ko si Juan.

Kamo'y moadto ngadto sa Banawa. You (plu.) are going to Banawa.
*Mo'y moadto ngadto sa Banawa.

But...

Ako si Juan.
Ako mao'y moadto ngadto sa Banawa.

First person
plural: clusivity[edit]

In Cebuano, like most other Austronesian
languages, the first person plural forms encode clusivity.
This distinction, not found in most European
languages, signifies whether or not the addressee is included.

Examples:

Moadto mi sa eskuwelahan.

We (someone else and I but not you) will go to school.

Moadto ta sa eskuwelahan.

We (you and I and perhaps someone else) will go to school.

Demonstratives[edit]

Cebuano demonstratives are as follows:

Case

Direct

Ergative

Oblique

Distance

Full*

Short*

Full*

Short*

'NG-'**

'D-'**

Proximal

(very near speaker)

kiri

kari

ri

niiri

niari

iri

ari
ri

ngari

diri

Medioproximal

(near speaker)

kini

kani

ni

niini

niani

ini

ani
ni

nganhi

dinhi

Medial†

(near addressee)

kana

na

niana

ana

nganha

diha

dinha

Distal

(remote)

kadto

to

niadto

adto

ngadto

didto

* When the demonstrative is used as a predicate, the full form must be
used.
** Both forms, those beginning with 'ng-' and those with 'd-', are
interchangeable and correspond to the deictives below.
† Although not
represented in the orthography, forms in this row end in a glottal
stop:
kana /kanaˀ/, na /naˀ/, niana /niˀanaˀ/,
nganha /ŋanhaˀ/, diha /dihaˀ/, dinha /dinhaˀ/.

Examples:

Unsa kini/ni?
What's this?

Kinsa kana/na?
Who is that?

Gikan ning sulata sa Presidente sa Pilipinas.
This letter is
from the President of the Philippines

Mangaon sila didto.
They will eat there.

Nikaon kadtong mga tawo ug mga bata didto sa
piyesta/pista.
Those people and children ate/eat/are eating at the
feast.

Adverbs[edit]

Deictics[edit]

Deictics, words such as here and there, reference locations
between the speaker and addressee. In addition to the same four-way distinction
of proximity for demonstratives (near speaker, near speaker and
addressee, near addressee and remote), deictics can express
three tenses:

Present: "X is here/there now"

Past: "X was here/there"

Future: "X will be here/there"

The present and future tense forms can precede or follow the words or phrases
they modify by linking with nga. The past tense forms, however, only have
a past meaning if they precede their words or phrases. If they follow, they
convey no tense.

The 'ng-' forms are always tenseless. They follow the words or phrases they
modify and can substitute equivalent past forms. In addition, they show movement
or motion to the relative location which past forms cannot.

Present Tense

Past Tense

Future Tense

Tenseless (D-)

Tenseless (NG-)

Proximal

dia
adia

diri

ari

diri

ngari

Mesioproximal†

nia
ania

dinhi

anhi

dinhi

nganhi

Mesiodistal

naa
anaa

diha
dinha

anha

diha
dinha

nganha

Distal

toa
atoa

didto

adto

didto

ngadto

† Forms in this row end in a glottal stop:
naa /naˀaˀ/, anaa
/ˀanaˀaˀ/, diha /dihaˀ/, dinha /dinhaˀ/, anha /ˀanhaˀ/,
diha /dihaˀ/, dinha /dinhaˀ/, nganha /ŋanhaˀ/.

Examples:

Dia diri ang bata.
The child is over here.

Toa si lolo sa Amerika.
Grandfather is in America.

Dinhi ang Doktor gahapon.
The doctor was here yesterday.

Adto siya sa Maynila.
She is in Manila.

Nidagan ang bata ngadto sa balay niya.
The child ran there (thither) to his/her house.

Nouns[edit]

Cebuano nouns fall into of two classes: personal and general.
Personal nouns refer to persons or personified objects and animals and names.
All other nouns fall into the general category. Nouns do not inflect for case or
number: Case is shown using case markers; the plural number is show with the
particle mga.

Case[edit]

Cebuano nouns assume three cases based on their role in a sentence:

Direct - This is the
case of the predicative nominal and the subject of such phrases. It is the
case used for the topic of transitive verbs.

Ergative
- This is the case of the actor or agent in non-actor focus verb forms and the
case of possession and roles of the genitive case.

Oblique
- A peripheral case, this is the case of the direct object of actor-focus
verbs. It is used when the case relationship is non-core, i.e., neither
ergative nor direct in nature.

Class

Direct

Ergative

Oblique

General

ang

sa

sa (definite)
og (indefinite)

General

Plural

ang mga

sa mga

sa mga (definite)

og mga (indefinite)

Personal

si

ni

kang

Personal

Plural

sila si

silang

nila ni

nilang

kanila ni

kanilang

The use of sa VS. og in the oblique case is a matter of
definiteness when the noun is the object of an actor-focus verb. Compare the
following examples.

[Definite] Nipalit/Mipalit si Juan sa sakyanan. John
bought the car.

[Indefinite] Mipalit si Juan og sakyanan. John bought
a car

In example sentence 1, the car that John bought is particular. It may have
been a car he was thinking about buying or one that the speaker was selling
John. In 2, the speaker may or may not know the specifics about the car in
question.

Number[edit]

Plurality is shown by preceding the noun with the particle mga /maŋa/.

There are special cases though:

1. Adding the prefix ka- before and the suffix -an can
pluralize a noun (the suffix -han is used if the root word ends with a
vowel). This word treatment is used to group what are considered identical
objects as one entity. Examples are:

libot which is regularly used as a verb meaning to go around
but in this case as a noun meaning "surrounding" (as in palibot) can be
changed to kalibotan which means "world" (or 'the entire
surroundings').

tawo which means "man" or "person" can be changed to
katawhan which means "men" or "people". The vowel "o" was omitted in
this case because the "w" carries the sound of "o" by itself.

balay (house): kabalayan (houses)

bata (child/boy/girl): kabataan. This word is an exception
to the rule, as the suffix -an instead of -han is used.

"nasod" (nation): "kanasoran" (nations). The "d" changed to "r" because
that usually (not always) happens to "d" when placed between two vowels,
though in Cebuano, d and r are not allophones, unlike in other
Philippine languages.

Although it is tolerable in some cases, the use of mga before a noun
applied with ka- -an is not necessary anymore. ang mga kabataan
(the children) is considered redundant, and ang kabataan is more
grammatically accurate.

Because the use of ka- -an groups objects into one entity, there are
cases that a word will mean a place of which the objects are frequently or
usually found/exist. An example is:

kasagingan (from the root word saging (banana)) does not
mean "bananas". Instead, it means 'a place of bananas' or simply "banana
farm".

2. There is this very rare case of which an adjective can be pluralized and
the noun it described can be, but not necessarily, omitted. Example: the word
gamay ('small') can be changed to gagmay ('small ones')in which
"g" was inserted in between. The same can be applied to dako which means
'big', changing it to dagko (big ones). Other examples are:

taas (long): tag-as (long ones)

mubo (short): mugbo (short ones)

layo (far): lagyo (far ones)

du-ol (near): dug-ol (near ones)

This rule cannot be applied to all other adjectives.

Gender[edit]

As a rule, Cebuano does not categorize nouns by gender. Natural gender are
found in Spanish loans.

Adjectives[edit]

Plural forms[edit]

Adjectives do not inflect for the plural. Common adjectives of measurement,
however, have a plural form characterized by the infixation of /g/.[1]

Gloss

Singular

Plural

big

dako

dagko

near

duol

dug-ol

small

gamay

gagmay

far

layo

lagyo

short

mubo

mugbo

tall

taas

tag-as

Comparative[edit]

In comparing two similar items, the comparative
form indicates that one has a higher degree (or lower degree) of the quality
expressed by the root, e.g., bigger, smaller, greater, etc.

The comparative degree is expressed in the following ways:

Precede the adjective with labi pa "more (still)"

Precede the adjective with the particle mas (from Spanish
más)

dako big

Method

Form

Gloss

labi pa

labi pang dako

bigger

mas

mas dako

bigger

Comparative
superlative[edit]

The comparative superlative
indicates the maximum degree of the quality expressed in comparison to other
items. In Cebuano this degree can be expressed by a prefix, pinaka- or by
the use of the particle labi (most).

dako big

Method

Form

Gloss

pinaka-

pinakadako

biggest

labi

labing dako

biggest

Absolute
superlative[edit]

The absolute superlative is the form used in exclamations, for example,
"How pretty you are!", and denote the extreme quality of the root.

It is formed by prefixing Pagka- or Ka- (short form) to the
root. The subject follows in the oblique.

Examples:

Pagkanindot kanimo! (Full)
Kanindot nimo! (Short)
How pretty you are! You are extremely pretty!

Intensive[edit]

To express intensity, adjectives are followed by 'kaayo'
(very).

Examples:

Ang mga dwendey mubo kaayo.
Dwarves are very short.

Linkers[edit]

Nga[edit]

The linker nga (pronounced /ŋa/) shows the relationship between modifiers
to the head
of the phrase. Examples of such relationships are adjective-noun, clause-noun, adverb-verb,
adverb-adjective and noun-noun. Without the intervening linker, juxtaposition of
modifier and head can constitute, not a phrase, but a sentence unto itself.
Compare the phrase "ang batang lalaki" the/a young man/boy and
the sentence "ang bata lalaki" the child is male or the child
is a boy.

After words that end in a monophthong,
diphthong or -n,
nga is reduced to -ng /-ŋ/.

Unlike Tagalog,
nga is not used with numbers; ka below is used instead.

Example

Gloss

balay nga bato

balay'ng bato

stone house

balay nga nipa

balay'ng nipa

nipa hut

balay nga kahoy

balay'ng kahoy

wooden house

dako nga balay

dakong balay

big house

gamay nga balay

gamay'ng balay

small house

Ka[edit]

The linker ka is used to link a number and the phrase it modifies.
Buok whole is sometimes used with ka.

Example 1

Example 2

Gloss

usa ka bata

usa ka buok bata

one child

walo ka semana

walo ka buok semana

eight weeks

duha ka tasa

duha ka buok tasa

two cups

Enclitic
particles[edit]

ba: used for yes-and-no questions and optionally for other types of
questions.

gayud/gyud:[2]
indeed; used in affirmations or emphasis.

kay: because. NB: "kay" is also used as "is" or "are" in sentences
with Subject-Predicate structure

lang/ra/da: limiting particle; just, only.

man: even, even if, even though, although

na: now, already (past positive tense), anymore (past negative
tense)

pa: still, else

ug: and

usab,[3]
upod:[3]
also

Na and pa are not used in the same sentence.

Interrogatives[edit]

Unsa? What?

Asa? Where? (for a place or person)

Diin?, Dis-a? Where?

Hain?, Saa/Asa? Where? (for an object)

Kinsa? Who?

Ngano? Why?

Kang'kinsa? To whom?

Giunsa? How? (past)

Unsaon? How? (future)

Kanus-a? When?

Pila ka buok?, Pila? How many?

Tagpila? How much?

Diay ba? Really?

The word asa and hain:

Asa and hain—both mean where—have distinct uses in
formal Cebuano usage.

Asa is used when asking about a place.

Asa ka padulong? (Where are you going?)

Asa ta molarga? (Where are we traveling to?)

Hain is used when asking about a food or thing.

Hain na ang gunting? (Where is the pair of scissors?)

Hain na ang pagkaon sa piyasta/pista? (Where is the food for the
festival)

In spoken Cebuano, however, asa is commonly used to replace
hain. In fact, hain, except by older generations, is rarely used.

Verbs[edit]

Verb Roots vs. Verb
Stems[edit]

A Verb Root is the simplest version of a verb that cannot be broken
down further (excluding morphological processes and colloquial speech) and
conveys its overall meaning or lemma. Affixes for the Voices,
Moods, Forms, and Aspects may not be added to the Verb
Root, only to the Verb Stem. Sometimes, the Verb Stem is
identical to the Verb Root, while other times, the Verb Stem is
created through the addition of certain affixes not related to the affixes of
the Voices, Moods, Forms, and Aspects. A commonly
known stem affix could be pa+, added to the beginning of a Verb
Stem or Verb Root in order to convey the meaning to cause. For
example, padala is the Verb Stem which means to send while
dala is its own Verb Stem which means to bring, concluding
that padala could literally mean to cause to bring. Another
commonly known affix is hi+ which is added to Verb Stems in the
Stative Form so that the verb may take in a Direct Object, as
verbs in the Stative Form would not be able to take in a Direct Object
without it.

Aspect, Form, Mood, and Tense[edit]

Verbs in Cebuano conjugate not only according to the Topic of the
sentence, but also to the Mood, the Form, and the Tense,
more accurately described as the Aspect, of the action. Cebuano verbs
conjugate accordingly through the addition of affixes to the verb stem.

Mood[edit]

There are three Moods that the verb may conjugate to in the Cebuano
language. The three moods are:

The Indicative
Mood[edit]

This is the default mood of verbs in which the action is most commonly
described. This mood does have imperative "aspects" in certain
Forms.

The Mirative
Mood[edit]

This is the mood where the action is unexpected or unintended. There is no
imperative "aspect" for this mood. This mood is a little differently used in
Cebuano than its usual use, see Mirative
Mood. Some also consider to describe this mood as Dubitative or Subjunctive.

The Potential
Mood[edit]

This is the mood where the action is able to happen or allowed to happen.
This mood may also be used to convey a statement or general possibility. There
is no imperative "aspect" for this mood.

The prefixes naka+ and maka+ (mostly used for this mood) may be
shortened to ka+ in colloquial speech and in colloquial writing, which
may get rid of the aspect within the prefixes. This could be similar to
naga+ and maga+ being shortened to ga+, see below.

Form[edit]

There are four Forms that the verb may conjugate to in the Cebuano
language. The four forms are:

The Transitory
Form[edit]

This is the form where the action was, is, or will be instantly completed.
This form is also the form where the action may just be a statement and can be
somewhat neutral in meaning.

The Durative
Form[edit]

This is the form where the action takes place over a not-always-specific
duration of time. See Durative
Aspect.

The Stative Form[edit]

This is the form where the action is expressing the state of being something
is in or its condition or even its emotion. This mood also may express a change
going on within something. Usually, verbs that express this mood do not have
Direct Objects unless the prefix hi+ is added to the original
Verb Stem. This addition forms another Verb Stem which now allows
the verb to have a Direct Object.

The Reciprocal
Form[edit]

This is the form where the action is being reciprocated between two
persons/things to each other.

Tense vs. Aspect[edit]

Cebuano generally does not use Tense, rather it uses Aspect.
Cebuano verbs conjugate according to the Voice, the Mood, the
Form, and the Aspect. According to the functionalist school of
grammar, there are two aspects: the "nasugdan" (Incepted
[Past/Present Inchoative]) aspect and the "pagasugdan" (Incepting
[Future/Habitual Inchoative]) aspect. They claim that Cebuano verbs have the aspect of inception;
that is whether the action has been initiated or not.

The "nasugdan" aspect is the aspect where the action had already started in
the past, while the "pagasugdan" aspect is the aspect where the action has not
started yet. Basically, past and present actions are in the "nasugdan" aspect
while future actions and habitual actions are in the "pagasugdan" aspect.
Although habitual actions started in the past, they have yet to start again.
Hence, they are in the "pagasugdan" aspect.

The "Imperatibo"
(Imperative/Command) mood is commonly grouped together with these aspects (and
not with the other moods) because there are multiple imperatives of the same
verb that exist according to which Form is in use.

In Cebuano, verbs conjugate for Negatibo
(negative) sentences. However, the verb itself is not negative, it just agrees
with the negative words wala and dili through "negatibo" verb
affixes. Wala is used for the Nasugdan aspect and Dili is
used for the Pagasugdan aspect. Ayaw is used as the negative
imperative, see Prohibitive
mood.

Verb
Affixes for Voice, Mood, Form, and Aspect[edit]

Verb Affixes for Voice, Mood, Form, and Aspect may overlap. Some of these
affixes are shortened in speech and informal writing.

Not all groups of affixes can be used for some verbs; some verbs may not make
sense with certain groups of affixes. For example, the verb stem anhi,
which generally means to come, cannot have any of the passive voices'
affixes. The only way to know which groups of affixes are able to be used for
each verb stem are through memorization, online lists, or experience of each
verb stem one comes across. In addition to that, in certain verbs, the affixes
take on different meanings and overlap with other Forms due to historical
use. For example, the verb stem buak, to break, uses the same
affixes of the Potential Mood as the Transitory Form in the
Indicative Mood. Using the literal affixes of the Transitory Form
in the Active Voice for buak would sound incorrect to native
speakers. For the most part, the way the affixes are labeled are the way they
are used. Exceptions can be learned through experience.

Now, here is the more in-depth list of all of the proper, grammatical
affixes used for each voice:

Active Voice
Affixes[edit]

The Active Voice in Cebuano (a.k.a. the Agent Trigger) is the
Voice where the Topic of the sentence is the Agent (a.k.a. the
Doer, the Subject, the Actor) of the sentence. The verb partly conjugates
according to the fact that the Agent is the Topic. All Active
Voice Affixes are actually prefixes.

The Transitory Form

Aspect/Mood

Indicative

Mirative

Potential

nasugdan

ni+ or mi+

nahi+

naka+

nasugdan

examples

Miadto ka sa tindahan.

You went/go to the store.

Nahiadto ka sa tindahan.

Surprisingly, you went/go to the store.

Nakaadto ka sa tindahan.

You were/are able to go to the store.

pagasugdan

mo+

mahi+

maka+

pagasugdan

examples

Moadto ka sa tindahan.

You will go to the store.

Mahiadto ka sa tindahan.

Surprisingly, you will go to the store.

Makaadto ka sa tindahan.

You will be able to go to the store.

negatibo

mo+

mahi+

maka+

negatibo

examples

Wala ka moadto sa tindahan.

You did/do not go to the store.

Dili ka moadto sa tindahan.

You will not go to the store.

Wala ka mahiadto sa tindahan.

Surprisingly, you did/do not go to the store.

Dili ka mahiadto sa tindahan.

Surprisingly, you will not go to the store.

Wala ka makaadto sa tindahan.

You were/are not able to go to the store.

Dili ka makaadto sa tindahan.

You will not be able to go to the store.

imperatibo

(Verb Stem) or optionally: pag+

(none)

(none)

imperatibo

examples

Adto (ka) sa tindahan!

(You,) Go to the store!

---

---

These affixes not only have the essence that they are instantaneous, but they
also have the essence of intention; that the topic willed for it to happen. It
also has the essence of motion or movement. The prefix mi+ is more formal
than ni+; otherwise, they are interchangeable. It is common to use
pag+ because it is a common imperative affix in the Active Voice in
Cebuano.

With verb stems like adto, mo+ may sometimes be used as the
"nasugdan" aspect because although it started in the past and may still be going
on, the destination may not have been reached yet. Adto also means to
go, and when used in the present tense, it is understandable that it may use
mo+ for a "nasugdan" aspect.

The Durative Form

Aspect/Mood

Indicative

Mirative

Potential

nasugdan

nag+ or naga+

nahi+

naka+

nasugdan

examples

Nagkaon siya sa Jollibee,

He/She was/is eating at Jollibee.

Nahikaon siya sa Jollibee.

Surprisingly, he/she was/is eating at Jollibee.

Nakakaon siya sa Jollibee.

He/She was/is able to eat at Jollibee.

pagasugdan

mag+ or maga+

mahi+

maka+

pagasugdan

examples

Magkaon siya sa Jollibee.

He/She will be eating at Jollibee.

Mahikaon siya sa Jollibee.

Surprisingly, he/she will be eating at Jollibee.

Makakaon siya sa Jollibee.

He/She will be able to eat at Jollibee.

negatibo

mag+

mahi+

maka+

negatibo

examples

Wala siya magkaon sa Jollibee.

He/She was/is not eating at Jollibee.

Dili siya magkaon sa Jollibee.

He/She will not be eating at Jollibee.

Wala siya mahikaon sa Jollibee.

Surprisingly, he/she was/is not eating at Jollibee.

Dili siya mahikaon sa Jollibee.

Surprisingly, he/she will not be eating at Jollibee.

Wala siya makakaon sa Jollibee.

He/She was/is not able to eat at Jollibee.

Dili siya makakaon sa Jollibee.

He/She will not be able to eat at Jollibee.

imperatibo

pag+

(none)

(none)

imperatibo

examples

Pagkaon (ka) sa Jollibee!

(You,) Eat at Jollibee!

---

---

nasugdan plural

nang+

nahipang+

nakapang+

nasugdan plural

examples

*Nangaon sila sa Jollibee.

They were/are eating at Jollibee.

Nahipangaon sila sa Jollibee.

Surprisingly, they were/are eating at Jollibee.

Nakapangaon sila sa Jollibee.

They were/are able to eat at Jollibee.

pagasugdan plural

mang+

mahipang+

makapang+

pagasugdan plural

examples

*Mangaon sila sa Jollibee.

They will be eating at Jollibee.

Mahipangaon sila sa Jollibee.

Surprisingly, they will be eating at Jollibee.

Makapangaon sila sa Jollibee.

They will be able to eat at Jollibee.

negatibo plural

mang+

mahipang+

makapang+

negatibo plural

examples

Wala sila mangaon sa Jollibee.

They were/are not eating at Jollibee.

Dili sila mangaon sa Jollibee.

They will not be eating at Jollibee.

Wala sila mahipangaon sa Jollibee.

Surprisingly, they were/are not eating at Jollibee.

Dili sila mahipangaon sa Jollibee.

Surprisingly, they will not be eating at Jollibee.

Wala sila makapangaon sa Jollibee.

They were/are not able to eat at Jollibee.

Dili sila makapangaon sa Jollibee.

They will not be able to eat at Jollibee.

imperatibo plural

pang+

(none)

(none)

imperatibo plural

examples

*Pangaon (kamo) sa Jollibee!

(You all,) Eat at Jollibee!

---

---

The prefixes naga+ and maga+ may be shortened to ga+ in
colloquial speech and in colloquial writing, which may indicate a lack of aspect
but it still preserves the form. Some argue that the difference between
nag+ and mag+ versus naga+ and maga+ are either in
formality (naga+ and maga+ being more formal) or in tense
(naga+ being more in the present and nag+ being more in the past,
while maga+ and mag+ are interchangeable).

The prefixes naka+ and maka+ may be shortened to ka+ in
colloquial speech and in colloquial writing, which may get rid of the aspect
within the prefixes. This could be similar to naga+ and maga+
being shortened to ga+.

Plurality depends on whether the topic is a plural noun. The topic may be the
subject, the object, etc., however, because this is the Active Voice, the topic
should always be the Subject with these plural affixes. As long as the subjects
are plural, the plural version is usually used, but this is not always
mandatory. Some verbs only use the plural version while other verbs are rarely
used in their plural versions.

* The "ng" in nang+ and mang+ may change to "m" or "n"
or delete the next consonant depending on the succeeding consonant. Refer to the
Morphological Process of Assimilation in Cebuano for more information.

Sometimes pang+ is used as the plural version of the imperatibo mood.

The Stative Form

Aspect/Mood

Indicative

Mirative

nasugdan

na+

naha+

nasugdan

examples

Nahigugma ako kanimo.

I was/am in love with you.

Nahahigugma ako kanimo.

Surprisingly, I was/am in love with you.

pagasugdan

ma+

maha+

pagasugdan

examples

Mahigugma ako kanimo.

I will be in love with you.

Mahahigugma ako kanimo.

Surprisingly, I will be in love with you.

negatibo

ma+

maha+

negatibo

examples

Wala ako mahigugma kanimo.

I was/am not in love with you.

Dili ako mahigugma kanimo.

I will not be in love with you.

Wala ako mahahigugma kanimo.

Surprisingly, I was/am not in love with you.

Dili ako mahahigugma kanimo.

Surprisingly, I will not be in love with you.

imperatibo

ka+

(none)

imperatibo

examples

Kahigugma (ka)!

(You,) Be in love!

---

nasugdan

nagka+

(none)

nasugdan

examples

Nagkahigugma ako kanimo.

I was/am falling in love with you.

---

pagasugdan

magka+

(none)

pagasugdan

examples

Magkahigugma ako kanimo.

I will be falling in love with you.

---

negatibo

magka+

(none)

negatibo

examples

Wala ako magkahigugma kanimo.

I was/am not falling in love with you.

Dili ako magkahigugma kanimo.

I will not be falling in love with you.

---

imperatibo

pagka+

(none)

imperatibo

examples

Pagkahigugma (kamo)!

(You all,) Fall in love!

---

The Stative Form does not have a Potential Mood. The hi+
prefix before gugma is necessary for the verb to take in a direct object,
so the "imperatibo examples" would imply a direct object. The nagka+ and
magka+ prefixes are different from the na+ and ma+ in that
they have the essence of a slowly but surely, or steady, change that is
occurring within the topic. They are not used as often anymore, so the same
essence may be achieved with the na+ and ma+ prefixes nowadays.
However, pagka+ just has more emphasis than ka+ may have, and
pagka+ is still commonly used today. The Mirative Mood with the
nagka+ and magka+ prefixes is no longer known nor used. The plural
prefixes nang+ and mang+ become nanga+ and manga+ if
the verb also includes these prefixes: na+, ma+, and ka+.
For example, "Nangahigugma kami kanimo." which means "We love
you."

The Reciprocal Form

Aspect/Mood

Indicative

mirative

nasugdan

nag+< >+in+< >+ay

nagka+< >+in+< >+ay

pagasugdan

mag+< >+in+< >+ay

magka+< >+in+< >+ay

negatibo

mag+< >+in+< >+ay

magka+< >+in+< >+ay

imperatibo

pag+< >+in+< >+ay

(none)

The Reciprocal Form does not have a Potential Mood. This form
is not in common use anymore.

Passive Voice for Direct Objects
Affixes[edit]

The Passive Voice for Direct Objects in Cebuano (a.k.a. the Patient
Trigger) is the Voice where the Topic of the sentence is the
Direct Object (a.k.a. the Patient, the Goal, etc.) of the
sentence. So the verb partly conjugates accordingly.

Both the Transitory & Durative Forms

Aspect/Mood

Indicative

Mirative & Potential

nasugdan

gi+

na+

nasugdan

examples

Giinom nako ang tubig.

The water was/is being drunk by me.

Nainom nako ang tubig.

Surprisingly, the water was/is being drunk by me.

or I was/am able to drink the water.

pagasugdan

+on

ma+

pagasugdan

examples

*Imnon nako ang tubig.

The water will be drunk by me.

Mainom nako ang tubig.

Surprisingly, the water will be drunk by me.

or I will be able to drink the water.

negatibo

nasugdan: gi+ or +a

pagasugdan: +on

ma+

negatibo

examples

Wala nako giinom ang tubig.

The water was/is not being drunk by me.

Wala nako imna ang tubig.

The water was/is not being drunk by me.

Dili nako imnon ang tubig.

The water will not be drunk by me.

Wala nako mainom ang tubig.

Surprisingly, the water was/is not being drunk by me.

or I was/am not able to drink the water.

Dili nako mainom ang tubig.

Surprisingly, the water will not be drunk by me.

or I will not be able to drink the water.

imperatibo

+a

(none)

imperatibo

examples

*Imna (ka) ang tubig!

(You,) Drink the water!

---

* Imnon and Imna went through some of the Morphological
Processes in Cebuano. The Mirative and Potential Moods are the
same for these forms of affixes. In the "negatibo aspect," the ergative
personal pronouns are usually put before the verb. A noun in the ergative case,
or a proper noun in the ergative case, would both be put after the verb. For
example, "Dili imnon sa iring ang gatas." which means "The milk will
not be drunk by the cat."

Passive Voice for Indirect
Objects Affixes[edit]

The Passive Voice for Indirect Objects in Cebuano (a.k.a. the
Circumstantial Triggers) is the Voice where the Topic of the sentence
is the Indirect Object (a.k.a. the Benefactee, the Location, the Goal,
etc.) of the sentence. So the verb partly conjugates accordingly.

Both the Transitory & Durative Forms

Aspect/Mood

Affixes

Example

nasugdan

gi+<verb stem>+an

Gikuhaan nimo ang iro og regalo. You got/get a gift for
the dog.

pagasugdan

+an

Kuhaan nimo ang iro og regalo. You will get a gift for
the dog.

imperatibo

+i

Kuhai (nimo) ang iro og regalo! (You,) Get a gift for the
dog!

In the examples, the topic is the dog (the Indirect Object) and it is
used as the topic to emphasize that the dog got the gift, nothing else. In
context, a person may say this to you when you are confused about whom/what you
should get the gift for. Perhaps there is a cat and a dog and the person
clarifies that you got/get/will get/should get a gift for the dog (not the cat).

The Potential Mood

Aspect/Mood

Affixes

Example

nasugdan

na+<verb stem>+an

Nalutoan niya ang iyang bisita og adobo. He/She could
have cooked adobo for his/her visitor.

pagasugdan

ma+<verb stem>+an

Malutoan niya ang iyang bisita og adobo. He/She can cook
adobo for his/her visitor.

Passive
Voice for Instruments Affixes[edit]

The Passive Voice for Instruments (a.k.a. the Instrumental
Trigger) is the Voice where the Topic of the sentence is the
Instrument of the sentence. The Instrument is the noun that is
used for the action of the sentence.

Both the Transitory & Durative Forms

Aspect/Mood

Prefix

Example

nasugdan

gi+

Giabli nato ang yawi og pultahan (para) *og amo. With a
key, we (including listener) opened/open a door for a boss.

pagasugdan

i+

Iabli nato ang yawi og pultahan (para) *og amo. With a
key, we (including listener) will open a door for a boss.

imperatibo

i+

Iabli (nato) ang yawi og pultahan (para) *og amo! With a
key, (let's [Including Listener]) open a door for a boss!

The prefix gi+ may also be used/confused as Both the Transitory
& Durative Forms in the Passive Voice of Direct Objects.

The prefixes i+ and i+ may be confused as one another but
context will be sufficient for distinction.

* In context, the key usually cannot open the boss. However, if you want to
be creative and say we opened the boss for the door, "para" or "alang" can be
added before the indirect object to mean "for". Through context, "para" and
"alang" and other prepositions for "for" are unnecessary. The "sa" marker may
replace either or both of the "og" markers for definiteness and/or distinction.
The "og" disappears if "para" or "alang" is used, but if "sa", "ni", or "kang"
is there instead, "sa", "ni", and "kang" may stay.

There are over 1000 different verbs in Cebuano to choose from and to use.
[4]
There are many more affixes that can be used for verb roots, verb stems, and new
words. [1]

Syntax[edit]

Sentences[edit]

1) equational ( topic = predicate ) ~ in this sentence type you can
interchange the topic and the predicate without changing the thought of the
sentence.

a) "Mao kini ang Kabisay-an". = This is the Visayas.
b) "Magbinisaya mi diri" = We speak Cebuano here.
c) "Kamao/Kahibalo ka magbinisaya?" = Do you know how to speak Cebuano?.

2) non-equational ( topic < predicate ) ~ in this sentence type the
topic and the predicate are not interchangeable.

a) "Filipino ang mga Bisaya." = Visayans are Filipinos.
b) "Unsa ang imong kinahanglan?" = What do you need?
c) "Naunsa na ang politika? = What is wrong with politics.

3) existential sentence of presence ~ sentences of this type tells the
existence of a thing or idea.

a) "Aduna'y Diyos sa langit." = There is God in heaven.
b) "Didto'y halas sa kahoy." = There was a snake in the tree.

4) existential sentence of possession ~ sentences of this type tell
about someone or something possessing something.

a) " Aduna'y Diyos ang mga anghel sa langit." = (The angels in heaven have a God.)
b) "Naa[5] koy ilimnon sa balay."
= (I have something to drink at home.)

5) locative sentence ~ this type of sentence tells the location of a
thing.

a) "Ania ang kwarta." = Here is the money.
b) "Tua siya sa bukid." = He/she is in the mountain.

6) meteorologic sentence ~ this type of sentence tells about weather
condition, noise level, etc., of a place.

a) "Tugnaw dinhi sa Baguio City." = It is cold here in Baguio.
b) "Init kaayo ang adlaw diri sa Sugbo." = The weather is very hot in here in Cebu.

7) exclamatory remark ~ praises and unexpected discoveries belong
here.

a) "Daghana nimo'g sakyanan!" = You have plenty of cars
b) "Gwapaha nimo!" = You are pretty
c) "Kasaba ba ninyo!" = You are so noisy

8) imperatives ~ commands and requests

a) "Isugba kanang isda." = Grill that fish.
b) "Ngari/Ali/Hali diri." = Come here.
c) "Ayaw mo panabako diri" = Do not smoke here.

9) interrogatives ~ questions that are not answerable by yes or no.

a) "Kinsa ka?" = Who are you?
b) "Unsa'y imong ngalan?" = What is your name?

10) confirmation ~ questions that are basically answered by yes or no.
constructed like the first 6 sentence type with the insertion of the particle
"ba" as a second term.

a) "Kini ba ang Kabisay-an?" = Is this the Visayas?
b) "Kamao ka ba molangoy?" = Do you know how to swim?
c) "Unsa ba ang sinultihan ninyo?" = What language do you speak?
d) "Isugba ba kining isda?" = Shall this fish be grilled?

Footnotes[edit]

^
Marking, Tom. "Cebuano Study Notes" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 17
July 2011. Retrieved 23 August 2011.

^
Gyud is pronounced as either [dʒud],
[gjud], or [gud]. In informal communications, it is also occasionally written
as g&#146;ud (often gud or jud)

^ a
b
The u in usab and upod, as
in many other words beginning with u, are frequently dropped, making it
&#146;sab and &#146;pod; in spoken Cebuano,
&#146;sad is often used instead of &#146;sab.

^
"Category:Cebuano
verbs - Wiktionary". en.wiktionary.org.
Retrieved 2018-01-03.

^
Naa often replaces
aduna/&#146;duna.

External links[edit]

Visayan
Academy of Arts and Letters

Academic Papers about Cebuano

A (rather old) Cebuano grammar

Ang Dila Natong Bisaya - Cebuano grammar written in
Cebuano

Cebuano Study Notes by Tom Marking

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cebuano_grammar&oldid=876251281"

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