R. David Zorc
Retired: Senior Linguist, Language Research Center, Hyattsville, MD

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ABSTRACT
	This paper discusses language shift in the Philippines with the increased use of Filipino, mostly focusing on the big languages. Filipinos have always been multilingual (e.g., mother- vs. father-tongue, trade language), but the need to communicate and even teach in the Wikang Pambansa has resulted in a shift from one dynamic situation to another. In most instances this has been positive, but the outflow of youth and inundation by Tagalog media have changed language patterns [substituting Tagalog vocabulary and creating new speech types (Taglish, Engalog, Hokaglish)]. The viability of one major language (Pangasinan) may be threatened.
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	In 1936, the Institute of National Language (INL) was established to determine which Philippine language should become the standardized national medium. The INL acted quickly and in 1937 published an eleven volume Preliminary Studies on the Lexicography of the Philippine Languages, with comparative wordlists including Tagalog, Sebu (Cebuano), Hiligaynon, Iluko (Ilokano), Samar-Leyte (Waray), Bikol, Pangasinan, Pampangan (Kapampangan), Ibanag, Magindanaw, and Ivatan as well as Spanish, English, and "Original Indonesian." President Manuel L. Quezon then issued an executive order approving Tagalog as the basis for the Wikang Pambansa [National Language], based upon five factors:
  1. Most widely spoken and most understood in all Philippine Regions;
  2. Not divided into smaller daughter languages, as are Bisayan or Bikol;
  3. Has the richest literary tradition; more books are published in and on Tagalog than any other Philippine language;
  4. It is the language of Manila, the political and economic center of the nation;
  5. Although Spanish was the language of the 1896 Revolution, the revolution was led by people whose native language was Tagalog.
	The 1987 Constitution declared "Filipino" as the national language. Previously (1959-1973), it had been dubbed "Pilipino" because [f] was not an original Tagalog sound. Filipino and English are the official languages of the country used in all media. Meanwhile 19 regional languages are recognized, taught in primary school (at least for the first two grades) and widely-used locally. By population in the millions these are: Tagalog (28), Cebuano (21), Hiligaynon (9.3), Ilokano, (9.1), Waray (3.4), Bikol (2.5), Kapampangan, (1.9), Pangasinan (1.2), Chavacano (1.2), Tausug (1.1), Maguindanao (1.1). The next four have less than a million speakers, but over half a million: Aklanon, Kinaray-a, Magindanaw, and Maranao.  Ibanag, Ivatan, Sambal, Surigaonon, and Yakan are included based on regional importance. Spanish (to some degree in Christian areas) and Arabic (overwhelmingly in Muslim areas) are taught in schools or mosques respectively.

Understanding of the following phenomena are critical, yet untested in most linguistic environments::
* Semilingualism - the inability to speak any language fluently [a person who transfers from one language area to another one or who lives in a community with two or three languages, but exhibits a low profile in any, involving poor vocabulary and creolized grammar.]
* Monolingualism - the ability to speak only one language [often found in rural areas]
* Sesquilingualism - the ability to speak one language fluently but either speak another partially or understand it but not really respond in it [often found at dialect border areas or in linguistically mixed households]
* Bilingualism - the ability to be conversant in two languages.
* Trilingualism - the ability to be conversant in three languages.
* Polylingualism - the ability to be conversant in four or more languages.

Philippine languages under discussion here, listed alphabetically:

Aklanon - Aklan province on Panay in the western Visayas
460,000 speakers (2000 census) ~ 502,000 (Ethnologue-20)
#13 among Philippine languages
Zorc Publications #004, #005, #006. #093a, #102; Also #2 @ archives/Zorc]
Tagalog words used in Aklanon: abay 'sponsor (at a wedding)', alaga' 'to care for, take care of' [Akl alila'], alimbong 'prostitute; any girl over-prone to attract attention', alipusta' 'be criticized, be condemned', asa 'to trust, hope' [pag-asa 'hope'], atsay 'housegirl', babad 'marinate, soak, leave in a liquid', bakla' 'homesexual; effeminate man' [Akl agi'], baguong 'salted fish', bahala' 'so what, come-what-may', balak 'plan' [Akl huna'huna'], balasubas 'impolite, indecent', balisong 'long sharp knife common to Batangas', bantot 'bad-smelling' [Akl baho'], bangos 'milkfish, Chanos chanos' [Akl bangeos], ba'on 'provisions' [Akl baeon], barong 'barong (embroidered shirt for formal wear)', batok 'nape' [Akl ingkoy], bayani 'hero' [Akl baganih], mabilis 'swift, speedy' [Akl mabakas], binggit 'edge, rim' [Akl binit], bulong 'whisper' [Akl hutik], buntis 'pregnant' [Akl nabdos], bunga'nga' 'mouth' [Akl ba'ba'], bungo' 'skull', kayumanggi' 'brown skin', kili-kili 'underarms' [Akl ilukon], makintab 'sparkling, shiny' [Akl magilak, ma'idlap]

Bikol - in Naga and Legaspi on the Bicol Peninsula at the southeastern end of Luzon.
2.5 million speakers (1990 census + Ethnologue-20)
#6 among Philippine languages
NOTE: The Bicol region has eleven speech varieties that are not mutually-intelligible (McFarland 1974): "Coastal Bikol": Naga, Legaspi, Virac; "Inland Bikol": Daraga, Oas, Libon, Iriga, Buhi'; and "Northern Catanduanes": Pandan. Three others with the Bicol Region (Northern Sorsogon, Southern Sorsogon, and Masbate) are genetically Bisayan.
* Bikol      Zorc Publications #076

Cebuano - throughout Cebu Island, eastern Negros Island, coastal parts of Bohol Island, Western and Southern Leyte, and most coastal areas of northern and southeastern Mindanao
21 million speakers (2007 census) ~ 15,900,000 (Ethnologue-20)
Consistently #2 among Philippine languages
Zorc Publications #061
Tagalog words cited in the Cebuano Dictionary (Wolff 1972): báyang 'the flag-raising ceremony < Bayang Magiliw, bulanglang 'dish of various vegetables and meat originating in Tagalog regions', dápat 'suitable, fitting (used by speakers influenced by Tagalog) [Ceb dápat [1] 'bring s.t. into contact with s.t. else, touch; [2] administer medicine; [3] hit, lay hands on'; [4] 'use in building s.t.']; dihin guli {Tag slang < hindi' ligo'} 'needing a bath'; labas 'put-on, boast, ostentatious display' [Ceb gula']; luma' 'be overshadowed by s.t. else, put into the background'; naspu {Tag slang < punas}; pahilihíli bágu kíri set phrase from Tagalog: saying one doesn’t want to, but actually be dying to do it; sigisígi name of a notorious gang of Tagalog hoodlums as opposed to the uksu (OXO) of the Visayans; Tagálug ~ Tagáwug 'Tagalog people', ; Tinagalúg ~ Tinagawúg 'Tagalog language'; wangkata {Tag slang < katawan} 'shape of one's body'; tabatsuy 'obese, fat' < Tag taba'

Chavacano - the only Spanish-based creole in Asia spoken in and around Zamboanga City on the southern wing of Mindanao. There are only a few speakers left of two different dialects in Cavite Province on the southern shores of Manila Bay (called Caviteño) and in Ternate or Bahra (called Ternateño)
1.2 million speakers (1996 census + Ethnologue-20) [includes all six Spanish creoles]
Zamboanga Chavacano is the most vigorous of these with between 431,000 (Ethnolgue) to 689,000 speakers (2010 census)
#12 among Philippine languages
Zorc Publications #130

Hiligaynon, also called Ilonggo - spoken on southern Panay in and around Iloilo, eastern Panay in Capiz (Capiznon), Guimaras Island, western Negros, and south-central Mindanao (SOCCSKSARGEN)
9.3 million (2010 census) ~ 6,240,000 (Ethnologue-20 + 639,000 for Capiznon)
#4 among Philippine languages
Zorc Publications #092     [Also see #15 @ archives/Zorc]

Ibanag - northeast provinces of Isabela and Cagayan in the Cagayan Valley
From 277,000 (Ethnologue-20) to half a million speakers (2015 census)
Distinguished by four fricative/affricate sounds [f, v, z, dz]
Like other North Luzon languages it has consonant gemination

Ilokano - most of north and northwest Luzon and many parts of central Luzon. It is the lingua-franca of the northern region of the Philippines, often spoken in the homes of other ethnic groups instead of mother- or father-tongue.
9,100,000 speakers (2015 census) ~ 6,370,000 (Ethnologue-20)
Consistently #3 among Philippine languages
Zorc Publications  #075, #062; Also: #17 & #18 @ archives/Zorc]

Ibatan ~ Ivatan | 33,000 speakers in the Batanes Islands
It has sister languages of Itbayaten (3,500 speakers) spoken on Itbayat and Yami or Tao (3,800 speakers) on Orchid Island off of Taiwan. Despite its low-density population, it was included in the original INL survey.

Kapampangan ~ Pampango | Pampanga Province, southern Tarlac, and northeastern Bataan, western Bulacan, southwestern Nueva Ecija, and southeastern parts of Zambales.
1,900,000 speakers (1990 census) ~ 2,040,000 (Ethnologue-20)
#7 among Philippine languages
Zorc Publications #077; Also: #40 @ archives/Zorc]
"They are quite conscious of the fact that Tagalog words were replacing more and more indigenous terms in the spoken Kapampangan language." [Wikipedia]

Kinaray-a or Karay-a | Antique and Iloilo provinces of western Panay
380,000 speakers (1994 census) ~ 433,000 (Ethnologue-20)
#15 among Philippine languages.
SEE #27 @ archives/Zorc

Maguindanao ~ Magindanaw - Muslim language of southwest Mindanao
1,100,000 (2010 census + Ethnologue-20)
#9 among Philippine languages
Zorc Publications #127, #128

Maranao ~ Maranaw - Muslim language of Lanao del Norte and Lanao del Sur on Mindanao; also spoken in northwestern area of Maguindanao, Cotabato, and Bukidnon
780,000 speakers (1990 census) ~ 866,000 (Ethnologue-20)
#10 among Philippine languages
Zorc Publications #129

Pangasinan, Pangasinense ~ Pangalatok - Pangasinan, northern
1.2 million speakers (1990 census) | 
#8 among Philippine languages
Zorc Publications #025

Sambal ~ Ayta - several municipalities in Zambales, Pangasinan, and Pampanga provinces, various area of central Luzon. It has several speech varieties:
70,000 speakers of Tina Sambal (Ethnologue-20, Stone 2008)
50,000 speakers of Bolinao (Persons 1998, Ethnologue-20, Stone 2008)
32,900 speakers of Botolan Sambal (Ethnologue-20, Stone 2008)
 5,000 speakers of Ayta MagIndi (Green 1991, Stone 2008)
 4,200 speakers of Ayta Mag-antsi (Storck 2005, Stone 2008)
 3,500 speakers of Ayta Abellen (Stone 2008)
 2,000 speakers of Ayta Ambala (Ramos 2004, Stone 2008)

Surigaonon - Surigao del Norte, most parts of Surigao del Sur, and some areas of Dinagat Islands, Agusan del Norte, Agusan del Sur, and Davao Oriental
500,000 (2009 census) ~ 501,000 (Ethnologue-20)
#15 among Philippine languages

Tagalog - basis for the National Language; southern Luzon, Marinduque
28,000,000 (2007 Census) ~ 20,000,000 (Ethnologue-20)
70,000,000 estimated number of speakers of Filipino
#1 among Phil. languages
Zorc Publications #059, #065, #066, #067, #071, #074, #081, #093; Also #53 @ archives/Zorc

Tausug - Muslim language of Jolo (Sulu)
1,100,000 (2000 census) ~ 784,000 (Ethnologue-20)
#11 among Phil. languages
Zorc Publications #132

Waray (Waray-Waray, Samar-Leyte) on Samar and Leyte
3,400,000 (2015 census) ~ 2,610,000 (Ethnologue-20)
#5 among Philippine languages
SEE #58 @ archives/Zorc]

Yakan - a Sama-Bajaw language of Basilan Island
110,000 speakers (1990 census) ~ 130,000 (Ethnologue-20)
An Indonesian-type (rather than Philippine type) language, probably related to the Barito languages of Borneo

The following factors are known to reflect fluency (generally, and especially in the Philippines):
	Movement at an early age to a completely different linguistic area (e.g., Cebu or Mindanao to Manila) has resulted in semilingualism.
	Most Filipinos are bilingual (mother-+father-tongue OR native+trade), many of the educated are trilingual (+Tagalog); quite a few are polylingual (+English).
	At border areas, sesquilingualism prevails; residents speak one language but understand a second. So two or more people can communicate by speaking one's own language, yet passively understanding the other.
	Some monolinguals can be found in extremely isolated communities (barrios or sitios) or outlying rural areas.

Reliable statistics about actual fluency are sadly not available. SIL often does field surveys in areas where they plan to set-up a translation team, but most are filed and very few of these get published. See the five available between 2003-and 2015: <https://www.sil.org/resources/publications/search/series/sil-electronic-survey-reports/country/Philippines>.
Scholars would do well to be aware of a rating scale such as that developed by the FSI (Foreign Service Institue) and the ILR (Interagency Language Roundtable) establishing eleven half-steps of fluency (from zero to five, equivalent to a Ph.D.) since it could be a useful tool in assessing complex patterns of competence. Practically speaking, an educated native speaker is a 4; command of all professional capabilities is a 3;command of all basic daily communications is a 2; and a tourist's necessities (bare bones basics) would be a 1. In short, levels start at 0 ( which represents no fluency whatsoever in a language) and proceeds to 5 (which represents the ability to converse, write, or read at a Ph.D. level with no bar to fluency).
These tests were originally proposed and conducted by the FSI (Foreign Service Institute) in the 1980's. They were adopted and modified by the ILR (Interagency Language Roundtable) in the 1990's. Around 2000, they were incorporated into US schools and universities by ACTFL (American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages)
There are five (5) main levels, but with the addition of half-steps (pluses), there are actually eleven (11).
Furthermore, education and testing are aimed at four skills: speaking, listening, reading, and writing.
Going from one level to another generally implies at least double the knowledge of grammar, vocabulary, cultural awareness, etc. compared to the previous level.
ILR	description	description of spoken fluency	vocabulary	in terms of one's job	ACTFL levels	
0	No proficiency	basic greetings	50	unable to function	Novice - low
Novice - mid	
0+	Memorized proficiency	stereotyped messages	100	survival	Novice - high	
1	Elementary proficiency (base level)	except for memorized expressions, requires enormous obvious effort	200	minimal	Intermediate - low
Intermediate - mid	
1+	Elementary proficiency (higher level)	can initiate and maintain predictable face-to-face conversations	500		Intermediate - high	
2	Limited working proficiency (base level)	may be forced to silence by limitations of grammar or vocab.	1,000+	practical	Advanced	
2+	Limited working proficiency (higher level)	able to satisfy most work require–ments acceptably and effectively	2,000		Advanced Plus	
3	General professional proficiency (base lev)	rarely hesitant; always able to sustain conversation through circumlocutions	4,000+	professional	Superior	
3+	General professional proficiency (higher level)	able to use the language in a wide range of sophisticated and demanding tasks	10,000		Superior	
4	Advanced professional proficiency (base lev)	speech on all professional matters as apparently effortless as in English	25,000+	virtual	Superior	
4+	Advanced professional proficiency (higher level)	language ability does not impede the performance of any language task, but not perceived as native	35,000		Superior	
5	Functionally native proficiency	equivalent to a highly articulate well-educated native speaker appropraite to all cultural standards	50,000	highly-educated native	Native	

Despite this bewildering array of statistics, Filipino is clearly the most spoken language throughout the Philippines, with its use somewhat less in the extreme north (upper Luzon where Ilokano is the trade language) and south (lower Mindanao, especially among Muslim communities: Tausug, Magindanaw, and Maranao).

Filipino (i.e., Tagalog) radio broadcasts, television programs, newspapers, magazines, and movies are increasingly popular and have inundated virtually all urban centers, thereby lessening the usage of local vernaculars. Then there is the role of regional trade languages. Hsiu-chuan Liao (email of 2018.03.14) informs us: "in Northern Luzon, kids grow up speaking Ilokano (before they go to school) and then gradually learn Filipino and English. They don't speak their parents' heritage language(s)." I have noted a parallel phenomenon in some Aklanon homes where one or both parents have spent an extended period of time in Manila (studying or working). They teach their children Tagalog.

When I visited friends in Pangasinan in 2005, I was impressed (and somewhat depressed) to find that in the many households I visited, children were speaking Tagalog and not Pangasinense. Similarly, there was no locally-published literature in sight within these homes. If such a situation continues, then this language with over a million speakers may be in danger, or it will only be saved by its maintenance in distant barrios and remote sitios.

In conclusion, I would like to quote from Headland (****):
Life is different for the Casiguran Agta today. Although the population decline has stopped, much of their traditional lifeways are gone. Only 3% of their old-growth tropical forest remains, and the game and fish are almost extinct, as are most of the plants and trees important to the Agra. Logging and mining companies, and thousands of Filipino farmer-settlers have taken over Agta lands, where in northern Aurora they now outnumber the Casiguran Agta people by 85 to 1. Instead of living in the rainforest distant from lowland Filipino farming communities, almost all Agta families since 1990 have lived on or near farmin settlement where they work as casual laborers for Tagalog lowlanders in exchange for rice, liquor, used clothing, and cash. If they didn't know Tagalog or that they lived in the Philippines when we first me them, the multilingual Agta today can often discuss in Tagalog the latest international news stories, and find their way to Manila on the new government road that reached Casiguran in 1977. The traditional Agta CUTLURE is not endangered, but moribund. The Agta have changed today to a post-foraging landless peasant society.

R. David Zorc, Ph.D.  <dzorc1@comcast.net>

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REFERENCES:

Dempwolff, Otto. 1934–38. Vergleichende Lautlehre des Austronesischen Wortschatzes. Zeitschrift für Eingeborenen Sprachen 15, 17, 19. Berlin: Dietrich Reimer.
Ethnolog. 20th edition. <https://www.ethnologue.com/>
Headland, Thomas N. 2003 "Thirty Endangered Languages in the Philippines." Work Papers of the Summer Institute of Linguistics, University of North Dakota Session, Vol. 47.
INL = Institute of National Language. 1937-1940. Preliminary Studies on the Lexicography of the Philippine Languages. Publications of the Institute of National Language, Volume 1:#1-17. Manila: Bureau of Printing.
____. 1953. A Composite Vocabulary of Philippine Languages. Manila, Bureau of Printing.
Lopez, Cecilio. 1974. A Comparative Philippine Word-List. Special Monograph No. 1. The Archive. Quezon City: Archives of Philippine Languages and Dialects and the Philippine Linguistics Circle, University of the Philippines.
----. 1976. A Comparative Philippine Wordlist: Sequels I and II. Special Monograph Nos. 3 & 4. The Archive. Quezon City: Archives of Philippine Languages and Dialects and the Philippine Linguistics Circle, University of the Philippines.
McFarland, Curtis D. 1974. The Dialects of the Bikol Area. Ph.D. dissertation, Yale University.
Stone, Roger. 2008. "The Sambalic Languages of Central Luzon," Studies in Philippine Language and Cultures 19:158-183. <http://www.sil.org/asia/philippines/ical/papers.html>
Wikipedia | entries for Aklanon, Bicolanos, Bikol, Cebuano, Central Bikol, Chavacano, Ethnic Groups in the Philippines, Filipino, Hiligaynon, Ibanag, Ilocano, Ivatan, Kapampangan, Karay-a, Languages of the Philippines, Maguindanao, Maranao, Pangasinan, Sama-Bajaw, Surigaonon, Tagalog, Tausug, Visayan, Waray, Yakan
Wolff, John U. 1972. A Dictionary of Cebuano Visayan. Linguistic Society of the Philippines, Special Monograph Issue Number 4.
Zorc, R. David.  Most publications are available at: <http://zorc.net/publications/>
. 1968. and Beato de la Cruz. A study of the Aklanon dialect: Volume One - Grammar. Kalibo: Aklan Printing Center.
----. 1969. and Vicente Salas-Reyes et al. A study of the Aklanon dialect: Volume Two - Aklanon-English Dictionary. Kalibo: Aklan Printing Center.
----. 1971-72. Dissertation field work on 58 Central Philippine speech varieties: <http://sealang.net/archives/zorc>
----. 1977. The Bisayan dialects of the Philippines: Subgrouping and Reconstruction. Pacific Linguistics C-44. Canberra: Australian National University. [Originally Ph.D. Dissertation: Cornell University, June 1975.]
----. 1984. The Philippine language scene—sociolinguistic contributions of historical linguistics. In: Panagani. Manila: Linguistics Society of the Philippines.
----. 1986. “The genetic relationships of Philippine languages,” in Paul Geraghty, Lois Carrington, and S. A. Wurm (eds), FOCAL II: Papers from the Fourth International Conference on Austronesian Linguistics, Pacific Linguistics C.94:147-173. Canberra: The Australian National University.
----. 1987. Cebuano Newspaper Reader. Kensington: Dunwoody Press.
----. 1991, and Rachel San Miguel. Tagalog Slang Dictionary. Kensington, MD: Dunwoody Press.
----. 1993b. “The Prehistory and Origin of the Tagalog People,” Language - A Doorway Between Human Cultures. Tributes to Dr. Otto Christian Dahl on his 90th birthday: 201-211. Oslo: Novus Forlag.
----. 1995. Philippine regionalism versus nationalism and the lexicographer. In: Braj Kachru, ed. Cultures, Ideologies and the Dictionary: Studies in honor of Ladislav Zgusta. Lexicographica Series Major 64:197-201. Tübingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag.